Dissertation, Otto-Friedrich-Universität Bamberg, 2022

Islamic architectural revetments in carved stucco medium have been one of the most obscure and understudied aspects of Islamic architecture, although there has been a recent surge in studies on the subject. Carved stuccos enjoyed a long chronological span running from the early Islamic period to the Timurid times, and were found in a broad geographical spectrum spanning from modern Spain to Central Asia. In Iran and Central Asia, the use of stucco for decorating monuments dates back to at least the Achaemenid and Parthian periods and it continued to be important throughout the Sassanid times. Pre-Islamic stucco production technology and aesthetics continued into the early Islamic period, when masterpieces such as the Naʾin Friday mosque (stuccos dated to c. 960), the Nuh Gunbad mosque near Balkh (8th-10th centuries), the structures of Nishapur (10th-12th centuries), the later stuccos of the Shir-i Kabir mausoleum in Mashhad-i Misriyyan (11th century) in modern Turkmenistan and the Zuzan mosque stucco mihrab(s) (probably 11th-12th century) were produced.
The stucco production technology and aesthetics reached their apogee in the Seljuq (1037–1194) and Ilkhanid (1256-1335) periods, when they were produced in workshops by numerous groups of craftsmen, for religious and secular monuments. Stuccos of these two dynasties are considered to be distinct subjects and understood to have been interrupted by the Mongol invasions, but the Ilkhanid craftsmen inherited the long-standing tradition and knowledge of stucco art from their predecessors. Publications on which the understanding of the Ilkhanid stucco has been based are the monograph by Donald Newton Wilber, and works by Sheila Blair, Bernard O’Kane and Rosario Paone. New examinations of Ilkhanid stuccos in Iran and its neighbouring lands relating to preservation, production and decorative aesthetics, craftsmen’s identities, mobility and workshop composition have also been published recently.
Ilkhanid stucco revetments have so far been studied in forms of monographs or articles dedicated to one monument or comparison of a restricted number of monuments. Research dissertations written on the subject of stucco have focused on one aspect of stuccos, such as their visual elements (iconographic studies) or geometric ornamentation. Accordingly, the bulk of Ilkhanid stucco revetments, amounting to some fifty decorative corpora, lacks systematic examination, which is the main aim of this research work. There is a need for a detailed analysis of a more extensive group of monuments, which will discuss their architectural context, the multitude of diverse aspects of stucco revetments, ranging from the technology of their production, their artistic techniques, the understanding of their craftsmanship, and for their visual features, systematic comprehension and reading of their epigraphic repertoires, discussion of craftsmen’s signatures and analysis of their geometrical and vegetal elements. This provides for the possibility of assessing their aesthetic characteristics. The specific nature of stucco production and design transfer into the carved stucco medium require a systematic study. Craftsmen’s signatures on this material reflect partial characteristics of identity of signatory artists, and provide information concerning their mobility for commissions. The particular frequency of stucco craftsmen’s signatures on Ilkhanid stuccoworks indicates changes in their social status, and these signatures provide evidence to support hypotheses of a workshop’s mobility, indirect dating, and family ties between craftsmen. Moreover, there is a need to answer art historic questions concerning Ilkhanid stuccos, and to provide information regarding the characteristics of their visual form, function and meaning within the architectural contexts and their aesthetic principles.
The main research question is: What are the function, meaning and aesthetic principles of carved Ilkhanid stucco revetments? The work comprises two main parts: the core of the dissertation (six chapters), which discusses the outlined aspects tied to the understanding of stucco revetments from a multitude of points of view. The second part, the appendix (the Catalogue of Monuments), comprises a detailed discussion of c. fifty Ilkhanid architectural decorative corpora in monuments which were either built or redecorated during the Ilkhanid period (1256-1335). This part of the dissertation is in fact the main source of data and information for the discussion of research questions and topics tied to the understanding of Ilkhanid stuccos, examined in the chapters of the dissertation.
The first chapter begins with a summary of history of the Ilkhanid Empire; it provides the chronological and geographical framework for the understanding of the discussed monuments and their stuccos. The chapter continues by outlining general information regarding the examined monuments and their chronological context and their relation to our understanding of the Ilkhanid Empire’s history. The second chapter is dedicated to the topic of Ilkhanid architecture. It provides information regarding characteristics of Ilkhanid monuments: their function, ground plans, architectural elements and construction methods. It is a comprehensive summary of the architectural context of the stucco repertoires and enables the understanding of discussion of stuccos within their architectural context. The third chapter examines the topic of Ilkhanid monuments’ patronage and especially patronage of carved stuccos. It offers information based on a more extensive bulk of some hundred and twenty Ilkhanid monuments and a further focus on fifty decorative programmes in carved stucco. It accordingly generates new information regarding the status of Ilkhanid patrons and discerned patterns of patronage tied to production and sponsorship of Ilkhanid stuccos.
The fourth chapter begins by discussing stucco production technology and artistic techniques for the manufacture of Ilkhanid stuccos. It continues by addressing the question of stucco polychromy and it provides information concerning the use of inscription styles for the design of stucco repertoires and expression of their epigraphic programmes. The most significant part of the discussion of inscriptions comprises a quantitative analysis of the Ilkhanid stucco epigraphic repertoires. We may discern patterns within the occurrence of their content and general characteristics of epigraphic programmes in carved stucco. The last part of this chapter addresses visual features of Ilkhanid stuccos, and it is arranged according to groups of stuccoworks produced by the same workshops, rather than being based on the traditional iconographic approach. The fifth chapter is dedicated to art historical phenomena tied to the understanding of the Ilkhanid stuccos. It begins with discussing the redecoration events and continues by debating the stucco craftsmen’s artistic notions. It also discusses other architectural revetment media of the Ilkhanid period and the hierarchy between them. The last part of the chapter debates the question of the geographical spread of stucco artistic techniques, composition of stucco craftsmen’s workshops, their signatures and mobility patterns. In doing so, it proposes a revised understanding of the concept of regional stucco schools.
Finally, chapter six provides the conclusions on the research, proposing information regarding the aesthetic characteristics of the Ilkhanid stuccos, their visual form, function and meaning within their architectural contexts. In addition the research work presents data from the monument documentation and examination (in the Catalogue of Monuments appended to the research work), such as information on monuments’ patrons, architects, craftsmen, their photographic documentation and graphic elaborations, and their epigraphic repertoires.
It is hoped that the presented research work sheds some light on carved Ilkhanid stuccos and the related decorative media, and that it contributes towards a better understanding of the Ilkhanid architecture and for preservation of Ilkhanid monuments.